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Leadership distribué

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L'idée que le leadership puisse être réparti sur un certain nombre d'individus, plutôt que d'être concentré en un seul leader, est une idée qui remonte dans les années 1950[1] et 1960[2]. Bien qu'elle ait été largement ignorée dans les décennies suivantes, l'idée du leadership distribué a commencé à recevoir une nouvelle attention croissante dans les années 1990 et 2000.

Dans la ligne récente des recherches, le leadership distribué est conceptualisé (et opérationnalisé) dans un nombre de façons différentes. Mais, il semble y avoir un large consensus sur trois questions: (1) Le leadership n'est pas seulement un processus "top-down" (de haut en bas) entre le leader formel et les membres de l'équipe, (2) il peut y avoir plusieurs leaders au sein d'un même groupe et (3) le leadership est une toile d'activités et d'interactions plus ou moins étendue selon les situations et entremêlée entre les personnes.

Peter Gronn (2003)[3] établit une distinction entre deux formes distinctes de leadership distribué : une forme additive et une forme holistique. Les formes additives du leadership distribué décrivent un schéma non coordonné du leadership dans lequel beaucoup de personnes peuvent exercer des fonctions différentes de leadership, mais sans qu'aucune personne n'ait de prédominance, et qui ne tiennent pas compte des efforts de leadership des autres dans leur organisation. Spillane (2006) appelle ce genre de leadership un "leadership parallèle" qui implique un modèle non coordonné de la distribution du leadership. Ces modèles de leadership distribué non planifié ont plus ou moins d'efficacité selon les organisations.

Pourquoi les groupes ont-ils des structures de distribution de leadership différencié ?

Pour comprendre le leadership distribué, il convient d'observer que les comportements individuels ont des effets sur l'organisation dans son ensemble. L'approche du leadership distribué montre deux avantages particuliers et utiles. Elle prévoit une analyse contextuelle; ce qui est un aspect gravement négligé par le domaine du leadership classique et le modèle se focalise sur la division du travail qui évolue dans les organisations, ce qui permet de comprendre et de suivre le moteur essentiel et premier des tendances émergentes du leadership distribué. Le leadership distribué améliore les possibilités pour l'organisation de bénéficier des capacités de plusieurs de ses membres, afin de permettre aux autres membres de tirer parti de la gamme de leurs forces individuelles, et de développer chez tous les membres de l'organisation une meilleure appréciation de l'interdépendance.

Une structure est considérée comme distribuée s'il y a au moins une personne au sein de l'équipe, autre que le leader officiel, qui reçoit des nominations suffisantes pour être codé en tant que chef de file émergent. Dans la structure du leadership distribué, le leadership est largement dispersé à travers les divers membres de l'équipe. La prédiction théorique de la supériorité du leadership distribué se justifie par le fait qu'il existe un grand nombre de leaders au sein d'un groupe, ce qui renforce la participation et le partage d'informations entre les membres de l'équipe, qui, à son tour, améliore la performance de toute l'équipe. Bien que les partisans de leadership distribué ont interprété les résultats empiriques disponibles comme suggérant que le leadership distribué est « fortement associé à des équipes plus efficaces », la preuve de cette hypothèse est en fait quelque peu mitigés avec le leadership partagé et le leadership dispersé.

Qu'est-ce qui explique pourquoi les équipes ont différentes structures de réseaux de leadership ? Il y a, bien sûr, plusieurs réponses possibles à cette question mais quelques-unes semblent particulièrement opportunes.

Il semble probable que la composition des groupes (en termes de personnalité et dans les autres différences individuelles) joue un rôle dans l'émergence de différents modèles de leadership distribué en équipes. L'hétérogénéité de la composition des membres de l'équipe (où l'hétérogénéité est largement conçue comme un mélange de personnalités, d'attributs démographiques tels que l'origine géographique ou le sexe, et / ou par d'autres attitudes) est susceptible de jouer un rôle puissant pour influencer la structure des réseaux de leadership au sein des équipes. Car, l'hétérogénéité, dans les caractéristiques des membres, peut produire des clivages dans les modèles d'identification et d'interaction au sein des groupes. Ces "lignes de faille" structurelles sont susceptibles, à leur tour, d'être liées à la distribution des perceptions de leadership au sein d'une équipe.

Une réponse plus cognitive à cette question s'appuie sur les travaux de la théorie du leadership implicite en mettant l'accent sur l'adéquation entre le contenu des schémas de leadership des suiveurs et les caractéristiques de leader, comme leur style de comportement et leurs caractéristiques démographiques. Selon cette approche, les schémas de leadership des personnes, qui se composent de croyances au sujet de comportements et des traits que devraient disposer un leader influent sur le processus par lequel les individus en viennent à attribuer le leadership à certains et non à d'autres.

Le leadership distribué dans le domaine de l'éducation

Dans le domaine de l'éducation, un auteur comme Peter Gronn avance que, tandis que l’autorité est détenue par le chef d’établissement, tout enseignant qui influence les autres de la cohérence de ses idées peut exercer un rôle de leadership. Les membres de l’organisation prennent conscience qu'ils peuvent devenir des acteurs majeurs dans la direction et les "suiveurs" comprennent que la porte leur est ouverte pour devenir des leaders autonomes.

Peter Gronn (2002) reproche au dualisme leader-suiveur d'être prescriptif plutôt que descriptif. Il propose de traiter cette dichotomie en plaçant sur une extrémité d'un continuum une focalisation sur le leadership, et en positionnant sur l'autre extrémité le leadership distribué. Il plaide pour le leadership distribué comme d'une unité supplémentaire d'analyse. Il définit le leadership distribué comme un statut attribué à un individu, à un agrégat d'individus séparés, à des ensembles de petits nombres d'individus agissant de concert ou à une pluralité de membres d'unités organisationnelles. Cette attribution concerne l'influence volontaire exercée par les membres de l'organisation sur des unités ciblées.

Le leadership distribué ne doit pas être entendu numériquement mais il est globalement focalisé. Autrement dit, le leadership distribué ne correspond pas à un individu leader mais il signifie que les attributions du leadership sont agrégées au sein d'un groupe ou d'une organisation. Tous les membres de l'organisation sont potentiellement responsables à un certain stade et à un certain moment. Cependant, l'unité d'analyse du leadership distribué est l'action concertée d'actes individuels, plutôt qu'une action collective d'actes regroupées. Peter Gronn identifie ainsi trois formes d'action concertée : une collaboration spontanée sur le lieu de travail; une compréhension intuitive qui se développe parmi les collègues travaillant étroitement ensemble; des arrangements institutionnels visant à régulariser le leadership distribué (par exemple l'auto-gestion d'équipes).

Annexes

Notes et références

  1. ↑ C. A. Gibb, 1954, "Leadership", In: G. Lindzey, dir., "Handbook of social psychology", vol. 2, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, pp877–917
  2. ↑ D. G. Bowers, S. E. Seashore, 1966, "Predicting organizational effectiveness with a four-factor theory of leadership", Administrative Science Quarterly, 11, pp238–263
  3. ↑ Peter Gronn, 2003, "The new work of educational leaders: Changing leadership practices in an era of school reform", London: Paul Chapman

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Directing and facilitating distributed pedagogical leadership: best practices in early childhood education Marit Bøe & Karin Hognestad International Journal of Leadership in Education pages 1-16 Education policy, distributed leadership and socio-cultural theory David Hartley Educational Review Volume 61, Issue 2, May 2009, pages 139-150 ‘A Bit More Life in the Leadership’: Co-Principalship as Distributed Leadership Practice Peter Gronn & Andrew Hamilton Leadership and Policy in Schools Volume 3, Issue 1, March 2004, pages 3-35 Distributed Leadership as Work Redesign: Retrofitting the Job Characteristics Model David Mayrowetz, Joseph Murphy, Karen Seashore Louis & Mark A. Smylie Leadership and Policy in Schools Volume 6, Issue 1, February 2007, pages 69-101 Distributed leadership: principals describe shared roles in a PDS Catherine Larsen & Barbara Stacy Rieckhoff International Journal of Leadership in Education Volume 17, Issue 3, July 2014, pages 304-326 The Influence of Distributed Leadership on Teachers’ Organizational Commitment: A Multilevel Approach Hester Hulpia, Geert Devos & Hilde Van Keer The Journal of Educational Research Volume 103, Issue 1, October 2009, pages 40-52 Leadership as distributed: a matter of practice John MacBeath School Leadership & Management Volume 25, Issue 4, September 2005, pages 349-366 Framing and enhancing distributed leadership in the quality management of online learning environments in higher education Dale Holt, Stuart Palmer, Maree Gosper, Michael Sankey & Garry Allan Distance Education Volume 35, Issue 3, September 2014, pages 382-399 THE EMERGENCE OF DISTRIBUTED LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION: WHY NOW? David Hartley British Journal of Educational Studies Volume 55, Issue 2, June 2007, pages 202-214 Co-constructing distributed leadership: district and school connections in data-driven decision-making Vicki Park & Amanda Datnow School Leadership & Management Volume 29, Issue 5, November 2009, pages 477-494 Distributed leadership and social justice: images and meanings from across the school landscape Philip A. Woods & Amanda Roberts International Journal of Leadership in Education Volume 19, Issue 2, March 2016, pages 138-156 Distributed control design for leader escort of multi-agent systems Yanqiong Zhang & Yiguang Hong International Journal of Control Volume 88, Issue 5, May 2015, pages 935-945 Distributed leadership: a collaborative framework for academics, executives and professionals in higher education Sandra Jones, Geraldine Lefoe, Marina Harvey & Kevin Ryland Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management Volume 34, Issue 1, February 2012, pages 67-78 Focusing the kaleidoscope: exploring distributed leadership in an English university Alan Floyd & Dilly Fung Studies in Higher Education pages 1-16 Online distributed leadership: a content analysis of interaction and teacher reflections on computer-supported learning María-Jesús Gallego-Arrufat, Elba Gutiérrez-Santiuste & Rafael-Luis Campaña-Jiménez Technology, Pedagogy and Education Volume 24, Issue 1, January 2015, pages 81-99 ‘There and Back Again’: My Unexpected Journey into ‘Servant’ and ‘Distributed’ Leadership Howard Youngs Journal of Educational Administration and History Volume 39, Issue 1, April 2007, pages 97-109 The management of education and the social theory of the firm: from distributed leadership to collaborative community David Hartley Journal of Educational Administration and History Volume 42, Issue 4, November 2010, pages 345-361 Organisational transition challenges in the Finnish vocational education – perspective of distributed pedagogical leadership Aini-Kristiina Jäppinen & Irmeli Maunonen-Eskelinen Educational Studies Volume 38, Issue 1, February 2012, pages 39-50 A study of the relationships between distributed leadership, teacher academic optimism and student achievement in Taiwanese elementary schools I-Hua Chang School Leadership & Management Volume 31, Issue 5, November 2011, pages 491-515 Distributed event-triggered cooperative attitude control of multiple rigid bodies with leader–follower architecture Shengxuan Weng & Dong Yue International Journal of Systems Science Volume 47, Issue 3, February 2016, pages 631-643 The Impact of Distributed Leadership on Collaborative Team Decision Making Jonathan A. Supovitz & Namrata Tognatta Leadership and Policy in Schools Volume 12, Issue 2, April 2013, pages 101-121 Degrees of distribution: towards an understanding of variations in the nature of distributed leadership in schools Ron Ritchie & Philip A. Woods School Leadership & Management Volume 27, Issue 4, September 2007, pages 363-381 An Organizational Perspective of Distributed Leadership: A Portrait of a Middle School Pamela S. Angelle RMLE Online Volume 33, Issue 5, January 2010, pages 1-16 A Global Study of the Practice and Impact of Distributed Instructional Leadership in International Baccalaureate (IB) Schools Philip Hallinger & Moosung Lee Leadership and Policy in Schools Volume 11, Issue 4, October 2012, pages 477-495 Distributed leader-following consensus for second-order multi-agent systems with nonlinear inherent dynamics Guoguang Wen, Zhaoxia Peng, Ahmed Rahmani & Yongguang Yu International Journal of Systems Science Volume 45, Issue 9, September 2014, pages 1892-1901 Preventing early leaving in VET: distributed pedagogical leadership in characterising five types of successful organisations Aini-Kristiina Jäppinen Journal of Vocational Education & Training Volume 62, Issue 3, September 2010, pages 297-312 Introduction--The Challenge of Distributed Leadership Helen Gunter School Leadership & Management Volume 23, Issue 3, August 2003, pages 261-265 The Yew Chung model of dual culture co-principalship: a unique form of distributed leadership Tristan Bunnell International Journal of Leadership in Education Volume 11, Issue 2, April 2008, pages 191-210 Distributed leadership and headship: a paradoxical relationship? School Leadership & Management Volume 25, Issue 3, August 2005, pages 213-215 Distributed leadership: conceptual confusion and empirical reticence Alma Harris International Journal of Leadership in Education Volume 10, Issue 3, July 2007, pages 315-325 Modelling Distributed Leadership and Management Effectiveness: Primary School Senior Management Teams in England and Wales Mike Wallace School Effectiveness and School Improvement Volume 13, Issue 2, June 2002, pages 163-186 Students’ views regarding their participation in university governance: Implications for distributed leadership in higher education Maria E. Menon Tertiary Education and Management Volume 11, Issue 2, January 2005, pages 167-182 The Research Evidence for Distributed Leadership in Therapy Groups Ariadne P. Beck & Lana Peters International Journal of Group Psychotherapy Volume 31, Issue 1, January 1981, pages 43-71 Distributed leadership to support PLCs in Asian pragmatic Singapore schools Salleh Hairon, Jonathan Wee Pin Goh & Tzu-Bin Lin International Journal of Leadership in Education Volume 17, Issue 3, July 2014, pages 370-386 Distributed consensus tracking of multi-agent systems with nonlinear dynamics under a reference leader Yu Zhao, Zhongkui Li & Zhisheng Duan International Journal of Control Volume 86, Issue 10, October 2013, pages 1859-1869 A distributed perspective on leadership and enhancing valued outcomes for students Helen Timperley Journal of Curriculum Studies Volume 40, Issue 6, December 2008, pages 821-833 Distributed observer design for bounded tracking control of leader-follower multi-agent systems in a sampled-data setting Yongli Cheng & Dongmei Xie International Journal of Control Volume 87, Issue 1, January 2014, pages 41-51 Pedagogical leadership from a distributed perspective within the context of early childhood education Johanna Heikka & Manjula Waniganayake International Journal of Leadership in Education Volume 14, Issue 4, December 2011, pages 499-512

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