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Leadership d'opinion

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En marketing de communication, les recherches sont effectuées sur les leaders d'opinions pour comprendre les comportements des consommateurs. Un individu agit bien souvent en référence à un ensemble d'autres individus mentalement représentés comme un groupe et qui sert de repère influençant son comportement. Les groupes de référence peuvent être classés de différentes façons, en fonction du degré d'influence (la référence normative et la référence comparative), du type d'interaction (directe et indirecte avec le groupe de référence), et du type d'influence (positive et négative). Le développement d'internet a fait redécouvrir la puissance d’une stratégie marketing fondée sur le leadership d'opinion : le bouche à oreille, le « buzz », le marketing viral, la diffusion des informations via les forums, les échanges d’e-mail, les messageries mobiles et les autres news groups.

Le modèle d’influence en deux temps

Les premières études sur le leadership d'opinion remontent aux travaux menés en sciences politiques à l’université de Columbia [1]. P. F. Lazarfeld, B. R. Berelson et H. Gaudet, ont recherché les déterminants du choix des électeurs pour un candidat durant une campagne électorale. En 1948, la publication de l'ouvrage, "People’s Choice" remet en question la métaphore de l'« aiguille hypodermique » selon laquelle il existerait une influence directe et massive des médias sur la formation des opinions. Pourtant les leaders et les non leaders sont exposés aux médias de façon identique. L'étude montre que la plupart des gens se font une opinion ou changent d’avis durant la campagne à la suite de l’influence exercée par une autre personne. Beaucoup de personnes discutent des élections avec leurs proches sans forcément lire des éditoriaux de journaux ou écouter un discours électoral. Ce livre a mis en place la théorie du modèle d’influence en deux temps (« Two step flow ») mettant en valeur les leaders d’opinion. Le modèle d’influence est donc complexe. Il serait plutôt du type multi-étapes.

Le leader d'opinion est-il un gourou du marché ?

La vision traditionnelle du leader d’opinion en marketing souffre de quelques faiblesses. Soit elles définissent le leader d’opinion comme une personne qui influence son entourage, soit elles insistent sur un lien de cause à effet par la capacité d'expertise du leader à donner des informations sur un sujet et à être sollicité par son entourage sur ce même sujet. L’expertise est une condition importante, mais non suffisante, du leadership d’opinion. Peu de leaders d'opinions disposent d'une expertise polymorphe, c'est-à-dire couvrant une large catégories de concepts. L’expertise est plus une dimension constitutive du leadership qu’une cause. L. Feick et L. Price[2] ont défini le concept du "gourou de marché" comme un individu qui détient des informations au sujet de toutes sortes de produits, de lieux d’achat et de marchés. Ce gourou se caractérise aussi par son goût prononcé à mettre en valeur son expertise au travers de discussions avec les consommateurs et en répondant à leur demande. Les gourous de marché disposent d'un capital de crédibilité nettement différent des simples leaders d'opinion et des adopteurs précoces et des autres influenceurs de bouche à oreille. Les jugements du leader d'opinion fondés sur une expertise perçue par les suiveurs apparaissent comme plus crédibles qu’une publicité, parce que les leaders d'opinion sont considérés comme des individus impartiaux et équitables. Les gourous du marché ont une propension inhérente d'accroître la collecte des informations générales du marché particulièrement dans le contexte du marketing business-to-business industriel.

Le leader d'opinion est un entrepreneur vigilant sur des informations privilégiées

Selon les études menées sur les caractéristiques du leader d'opinion (K. K. Chan et S. Misra: 1990), celui-ci dispose des mêmes comportements que l'entrepreneur kirznérien à savoir que le leader d'opinion dispose d'une forte capacité à se différencier des autres et agir volontairement et différemment des autres. Cela correspond bien à l'acteur vigilant qui, s'il veut percevoir des informations avant les autres doit se positionner autrement qu'eux, réfléchir autrement, s'imaginer le futur dans un autre schéma. Mais surtout il a la capacité de changer de cap rapidement, de se mettre en action avec détermination, même si cela implique des retournements de vision immédiats et abrupts. Le leader d'opinion est donc plus un entrepreneur consultant free-lance. Ses conseils ne sont pas des recettes standardisées, mais elles sont plutôt délivrées sur mesure. Il adopte plus une position d'empathie avec son entourage que d'introspection. Il regarde les problèmes comme s'il était l'interlocuteur auquel il délivre son avis. Pour développer cette qualité, il n'est pas nécessaire que le leader soit endogroupe (même âge, même groupe, même goût, même lieu d'habitation, etc.).

Annexes

Notes et références

  1. ↑ Lazarfeld P. F., Berelson B. R. et Gaudet H., (1944), The People Choice, NY : Columbia University Press.
  2. ↑ L. Feick et L. Price, 1987, "The market maven : a diffuser of marketplace information", Journal of Marketing, Vol 51, n°1, pp83-87

Bibliographie

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Michael D. Cole, Mary M. Long, Larry G. Chiagouris & Pradeep Gopalakrishna Transitioning from Traditional to Digital Content: An Examination of Opinion Leadership and Word-of-Mouth Communication across Various Media Platforms Journal of Internet Commerce Volume 10, Issue 2, April 2011, pages 91-105 Fred Dagenais Response Bias and the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire Scales The Journal of General Psychology Volume 100, Issue 1, January 1979, pages 161-162 Robert E. Denton Jr Presidential Leadership and Public Opinion Review of Communication Volume 9, Issue 1, January 2009, pages 6-11 Brandon Rottinghaus Presidential Leadership on Foreign Policy, Opinion Polling, and the Possible Limits of “Crafted Talk” Political Communication Volume 25, Issue 2, April 2008, pages 138-157 Barry Troyna & Robin Ward Racial antipathy and local opinion leaders: A tale of two cities Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies Volume 9, Issue 3, December 1981, pages 454-466 J. Elford, G. Bolding & L. Sherr Popular opinion leaders in London: a response to Kelly AIDS Care Volume 16, Issue 3, April 2004, page 405 Christopher A. Vaughan Cartoon Cuba: Race, gender and political opinion leadership in Judge, 1898 Ecquid Novi: African Journalism Studies Volume 24, Issue 2, January 2003, pages 195-217 Robert W. Hites & Donald T. Campbell A Test of the Ability of Fraternity Leaders to Estimate Group Opinion The Journal of Social Psychology Volume 32, Issue 1, August 1950, pages 95-100 Timothy A. Hill An experimental study of the relationship between opinionated leadership and small group consensus Communication Monographs Volume 43, Issue 3, August 1976, pages 246-257 Gitana Proietti-Scifoni & Kathleen Daly Gendered violence and restorative justice: the views of New Zealand Opinion Leaders Contemporary Justice Review Volume 14, Issue 3, September 2011, pages 269-290 Rahima C. Wade & Kim Putnam In brief: Tomorrow's leaders? Gifted students' opinions of leadership and service activities Roeper Review Volume 18, Issue 2, December 1995, pages 150-151

Following the Leader: Using Opinion Leaders in Environmental Strategic Communication Kajsa E. Dalrymple, Bret R. Shaw & Dominique Brossard Society & Natural Resources Volume 26, Issue 12, December 2013, pages 1438-1453 In brief: Tomorrow's leaders? Gifted students' opinions of leadership and service activities Rahima C. Wade & Kim Putnam Roeper Review Volume 18, Issue 2, December 1995, pages 150-151 Public opinion as leadership disincentive: exploring a governance dilemma in the AIDS response in Africa Per Strand Contemporary Politics Volume 18, Issue 2, June 2012, pages 174-185 Explicating Opinion Leadership: Nonpolitical Dispositions, Information Consumption, and Civic Participation Dhavan V. Shah & Dietram A. Scheufele Political Communication Volume 23, Issue 1, January 2006, pages 1-22 Political Opinion Leadership and Electoral Behavior Aron O'Cass & Dr. Anthony Pecotich Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing Volume 14, Issue 1-2, November 2005, pages 285-307 Characteristics of the Opinion Leader: A New Dimension Kenny K. Chan & Shekhar Misra Journal of Advertising Volume 19, Issue 3, October 1990, pages 53-60 E-WoM and 2.0 Opinion Leaders César Sahelices-Pinto & Carmen Rodríguez-Santos Journal of Food Products Marketing Volume 20, Issue 3, May 2014, pages 244-261 Are Party Activists Potential Opinion Leaders? Matteo Vergani Javnost - The Public Volume 18, Issue 3, January 2011, pages 71-82 Exploring the Impact of Cultural Value Orientations on Market Mavenism and Opinion Leadership Jie Zhang & Wei-Na Lee Journal of Promotion Management Volume 19, Issue 5, November 2013, pages 534-555 Opinion leadership in medication information H. John Baldwin, Leon E. Cosler & Richard M. Schulz Communication Quarterly Volume 35, Issue 1, January 1987, pages 84-102 The Use of Popular Opinion Leader (POL) Groups and the Reduction of “Gay Bullying” in Middle School: A Case Study Inquiry of Group Leader Experiences Anneliese A. Singh The Journal for Specialists in Group Work Volume 38, Issue 3, September 2013, pages 184-206 Are opinion leaders better represented? Anouk Lloren & Reto Wüest West European Politics pages 1-35 Student Opinion Leaders and HIV/AIDS Knowledge and Risk Behavior James Jaccard PhD, Ruth Andrea Levinson PhD & Luann Beamer MA Journal of American College Health Volume 43, Issue 5, March 1995, pages 216-223 An experimental study of the relationship between opinionated leadership and small group consensus Timothy A. Hill Communication Monographs Volume 43, Issue 3, August 1976, pages 246-257 House Majority Party Leaders' Uses of Public Opinion Information Douglas B. Harris Congress & the Presidency Volume 32, Issue 2, September 2005, pages 133-155 The Predictive Validity of an Opinion Leadership Scale Ronald E. Goldsmith & Thomas S. De Witt Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice Volume 11, Issue 1, January 2003, pages 28-35 Media consumption and population characteristics of political opinion leaders Peter A. Andersen & John P. Garrison Communication Quarterly Volume 26, Issue 3, June 1978, pages 40-50 The use of the opinion leader in continuing medical education Laurie Pereles, Jocelyn Lockyer, David Ryan, Dave Davis, Barney Spivak & Bruce Robinson Medical Teacher Volume 25, Issue 4, January 2003, pages 438-441 Does objective and subjective knowledge vary between opinion leaders and opinion seekers? Implications for wine marketing Debbie Vigar-Ellis, Leyland Pitt & Albert Caruana Journal of Wine Research Volume 26, Issue 4, October 2015, pages 304-318 Social Capital Characteristics of Open Source Software Opinion Leaders Li Yan Journal of Computer Information Systems Volume 54, Issue 4, June 2014, pages 1-10 Adaptive capacity and climate change: the role of community opinion leaders Noni Keys, Dana C. Thomsen & Timothy F. Smith Local Environment pages 1-19 Transitioning from Traditional to Digital Content: An Examination of Opinion Leadership and Word-of-Mouth Communication across Various Media Platforms Michael D. Cole, Mary M. Long, Larry G. Chiagouris & Pradeep Gopalakrishna Journal of Internet Commerce Volume 10, Issue 2, April 2011, pages 91-105 Public opinion regarding congressional leaders: Lessons from the 1996 elections L. Marvin Overby The Journal of Legislative Studies Volume 12, Issue 1, March 2006, pages 54-75 Hypothesis Tests on the Characteristics of Opinion Leaders: An Application to Travel Ick-Keun Oh Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing Volume 6, Issue 2, May 1997, pages 53-68 Insurance Sales Agents and the Internet: The Relationship Between Opinion Leadership, Subjective Knowledge, and Internet Attitudes Jacqueline K. Eastman, A D. Alan Eastman & Kevin L. Eastman Journal of Marketing Management Volume 18, Issue 3-4, April 2002, pages 259-285 Training Opinion Leaders to Promote Safer Sex Paul M. Grossberg MD, Timothy S. Tillotson, Craig M. Roberts PA-C, MS, Kathy J. Roach MPH & Brenda A. Brault BSN Journal of American College Health Volume 41, Issue 6, May 1993, pages 273-274 The Causal Flow between Public Opinion and Policy: Government Responsiveness, Leadership, or Counter Movement? Armen Hakhverdian West European Politics Volume 35, Issue 6, November 2012, pages 1386-1406 America's opinion leader historians on behalf of success Ronald H. Carpenter Quarterly Journal of Speech Volume 69, Issue 2, May 1983, pages 111-126 Variation in the Characteristics of Opinion Leaders Across Cultural Borders Roger Marshall & Indriyo Gitosudarmo Journal of International Consumer Marketing Volume 8, Issue 1, August 1995, pages 5-22 Examining Individual Differences in Interpersonal Influence: On the Psychometric Properties of the Generalized Opinion Leadership Scale (GOLS) Bernad Batinic, Markus Appel & Timo Gnambs The Journal of Psychology Volume 150, Issue 1, January 2016, pages 88-101 Popular opinion leaders in London: a response to Kelly J. Elford, G. Bolding & L. Sherr AIDS Care Volume 16, Issue 2, February 2004, pages 151-158 Family Planning Opinion Leadership in Korea: 1971 James A. Palmore, Michael J. Furlong, Francis X. Buchmeier, Insook Han Park & Laura M. Souder Journal of East and West Studies Volume 4, Issue 2, August 1975, pages 27-41 Opinion Leadership and Chinese Consumers’ Attitudes Toward Pork with a Quality and Safety Label Pei Xu, Zhigang Wang & Shunfeng Song The Chinese Economy Volume 48, Issue 1, January 2015, pages 41-56 Characteristics of Opinion Leaders in Substance Abuse Treatment Agencies Kathleen A. Moore, Roger H. Peters, Holly A. Hills, James B. LeVasseur, Alexander R. Rich, W. Michael Hunt, M. Scott Young & Thomas W. Valente The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse Volume 30, Issue 1, January 2004, pages 187-203 Cartoon Cuba: Race, gender and political opinion leadership in Judge, 1898 Christopher A. Vaughan Ecquid Novi: African Journalism Studies Volume 24, Issue 2, January 2003, pages 195-217 Twitter and Politics: Identifying Turkish Opinion Leaders in New Social Media Osman Zeki Gökçe, Emre Hatipoglu, Gökhan Göktürk, Brooke Luetgert & Yücel Saygin Turkish Studies Volume 15, Issue 4, October 2014, pages 671-688 Shaping Asia's Institutional Architecture for Economic and Financial Integration: Opinion Leaders’ Views Giovanni Capannelli International Economic Journal Volume 25, Issue 4, December 2011, pages 593-616 Intrafamilial Homogeneity for Perceived Risk and Opinion Leadership Johan Arndt Journal of Advertising Volume 1, Issue 1, March 1972, pages 40-47 Gendered violence and restorative justice: the views of New Zealand Opinion Leaders Gitana Proietti-Scifoni & Kathleen Daly Contemporary Justice Review Volume 14, Issue 3, September 2011, pages 269-290 The Role of Involvement on Millennials' Mobile Technology Behaviors: The Moderating Impact of Status Consumption, Innovation, and Opinion Leadership Jacqueline K. Eastman, Rajesh Iyer, Sara Liao-Troth, Donnie F. Williams & Mitch Griffin Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice Volume 22, Issue 4, October 2014, pages 455-470 Public Opinion About News Coverage of Leaders' Private Lives Daniel Riffe Journal of Mass Media Ethics Volume 18, Issue 2, June 2003, pages 98-110 Engaging Islamic Opinion Leaders on Child Marriage: Preliminary Results from Pilot Projects in Nigeria Judith-Ann Walker The Review of Faith & International Affairs Volume 13, Issue 3, July 2015, pages 48-58 Response Bias and the Leadership Opinion Questionnaire Scales Fred Dagenais The Journal of General Psychology Volume 100, Issue 1, January 1979, pages 161-162 Popular opinion leaders and HIV prevention peer education: resolving discrepant findings, and implications for the development of effective community programmes J. A. Kelly AIDS Care Volume 16, Issue 2, February 2004, pages 139-150 Effectiveness of opinion leaders for getting research into practice in the alcohol and other drugs field: Results from a systematic literature review Petra Bywood, Belinda Lunnay & Ann Roche Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy Volume 16, Issue 3, January 2009, pages 205-216 Building a Transnational Fusion Bureaucracy? A Study of State Officials and Opinion Leaders in Rousse (Bulgaria) and Transcarpathia (Ukraine) Christian Sellar Geopolitics Volume 19, Issue 3, July 2014, pages 540-564 Issue-Specific Engagement: How Facebook Contributes to Opinion Leadership and Efficacy on Energy and Climate Issues Emily K. Vraga, Ashley A. Anderson, John E. Kotcher & Edward W. Maibach Journal of Information Technology & Politics Volume 12, Issue 2, April 2015, pages 200-218 The Transplantation Society – New Key Opinion Leaders of Tomorrow 2006 P H Tan, K Giles & P L Tan Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy Volume 7, Issue 1, January 2007, pages 149-152 Who Are the Opinion Leaders? The Physicians, Pharmacists, Patients, and Direct-to-Consumer Prescription Drug Advertising Annisa Lai Lee Journal of Health Communication Volume 15, Issue 6, August 2010, pages 629-655 The Effect of Disclosure of Third-Party Influence on an Opinion Leader's Credibility and Electronic Word of Mouth in Two-Step Flow Caleb T. Carr & Rebecca A. Hayes Journal of Interactive Advertising Volume 14, Issue 1, January 2014, pages 38-50 The Role of the Alternative Press in the Agenda-building Process: Spill-over Effects and Media Opinion Leadership Holli Semetko Political Communication Volume 10, Issue 3, January 1993, pages 324-325 Service Opinion Leadership Stephen J Gould PhD Journal of Professional Services Marketing Volume 4, Issue 1, May 1989, pages 3-14 The employment of ward opinion leaders for continuing education in the hospital Seto Wing Hong, T. Y. Ching, J. P. M. Fwng & W. L. Seto Medical Teacher Volume 12, Issue 2, January 1990, pages 209-217 Do Critics Make Bestsellers? Opinion Leaders and the Success of Books Michel Clement, Dennis Proppe & Armin Rott Journal of Media Economics Volume 20, Issue 2, May 2007, pages 77-105 The Effect of Opinion Leader on Nuclear Public Opinion Teruaki OHNISHI Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology Volume 41, Issue 2, February 2004, pages 152-162 Segmenting by Risk Perceptions: Predicting Young Adults’ Genetic-Belief Profiles with Health and Opinion-Leader Covariates Rachel A. Smith, Marisa Greenberg & Roxanne L. Parrott Health Communication Volume 29, Issue 5, May 2014, pages 483-493 Role of opinion leadership, social connectedness and information sources in the diffusion of IPM in Honduran subsistence maize agriculture Kris A. G. Wyckhuys & Robert J. O'Neil International Journal of Pest Management Volume 53, Issue 1, January 2007, pages 35-44 Identifying well-connected opinion leaders for informal health promotion: The example of the ASSIST smoking prevention program Jo Holliday, Suzanne Audrey, Rona Campbell & Laurence Moore Health Communication pages 1-8 Attitudinal and Normative Dimensions of Opinion Leaders and Nonleaders Oded Gur Arie, Richard M. Durand & William O. Bearden The Journal of Psychology Volume 101, Issue 2, March 1979, pages 305-312 A Test of the Ability of Fraternity Leaders to Estimate Group Opinion Robert W. Hites & Donald T. Campbell The Journal of Social Psychology Volume 32, Issue 1, August 1950, pages 95-100 The Shaping of a Southern Opinion Leader Leonard Ray Teel American Journalism Volume 5, Issue 1, January 1988, pages 14-27 Audience Development for Community Theater: Opinion Leaders and Word of Mouth Communication Edward M. Tauber & P. Weissenberg Performing Arts Review Volume 2, Issue 3, July 1971, pages 525-534 Racial antipathy and local opinion leaders: A tale of two cities Barry Troyna & Robin Ward Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies Volume 9, Issue 3, December 1981, pages 454-466 Reflections on the Davos Crisis in the Turkish Press and the Views of Opinion Leaders of the Turkish Jews on the Crisis Malike Bileydi Koç Turkish Studies Volume 12, Issue 3, September 2011, pages 383-398 A key opinion leader interview with Prof D Santini: insight into cancer research Claudia Palmer Commissioning Editor & Daniele Santini Professor Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Targets Volume 19, Issue 3, March 2015, pages 443-445 A Key Opinion Leader interview: insight into the research and career of Dr KA Jacobson Claudia Palmer Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Patents Volume 25, Issue 1, January 2015, pages 125-129 Rejoinder: an opinion piece in response to the religious leaders who have asked for secular humanism to be included in Religious Studies examinations Marius C. Felderhof Journal of Beliefs & Values Volume 36, Issue 1, January 2015, pages 124-129 Trends of the human resources management model in Brazilian companies: a forecast according to opinion leaders from the area André Luiz Fischer & Lindolfo Galvão de Albuquerque The International Journal of Human Resource Management Volume 16, Issue 7, July 2005, pages 1211-1227 Popular opinion leaders in London: a response to Kelly J. Elford, G. Bolding & L. Sherr AIDS Care Volume 16, Issue 3, April 2004, page 405 A Key Opinion Leader interview: insight into the research and career of Prof. Claudiu T Supuran Claudia Palmer & Claudiu T Supuran Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Patents Volume 25, Issue 4, April 2015, pages 501-505 Comments on ‘Shaping Asia's Institutional Architecture for Economic and Financial Integration: Opinion Leaders’ Views’ by Giovanni Capannelli Doo Yong Yang International Economic Journal Volume 25, Issue 4, December 2011, pages 617-618 Following the Opinion Leaders? The Dynamics of Influence Among Media Opinion, the Public, and Politicians Philip D. Habel Political Communication Volume 29, Issue 3, July 2012, pages 257-277 COMPARISON OF OPINIONS OF SOCIAL WORK ADMINISTRATORS AND HOSPITAL ADMINISTRATORS TOWARD LEADERSIP TASKS Shirley H. Wattenberg MA, ACSW, Michael Miller Orr & Thomas O'Rourke PhD, MPH Social Work in Health Care Volume 2, Issue 3, May 1977, pages 285-293

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